Concertation and Local Development*

For some time, social scientists have sought to define modes of economic regulation, a number of which are based on cooperation between actors. There is a vast literature, including numerous attempts to create theories of economic regulation, that considers situations ranging from ‘political exchange’ at the national level to communityor association-based cooperation within local economies (Streeck and Schmitter, 1985; Cella, 1997; Le Galès and Voeltzkow, 2001). In focusing on the latter, this article proposes to define ‘concertation’ as formalized agreement (i.e. not just implicit or tacit agreement) on fixed objectives, between actors whose interests are traditionally and/or potentially diverse and/or contrasting. The two most notable and recurrent types of cooperation and concertation are between the public and private sectors and between business and trade union associations. Although the term ‘cooperation’ is too generic, the use of the expression ‘local concertation’ (let alone of other broad equivalents like ‘partnership’) is not free of risks and ambiguities. However, it is now being used to designate an increasingly widespread type of ‘pact-based practice’ and ‘partnership’ characterized by a focus on the individual objectives to be reached or on the behaviours to be maintained at certain times, using certain methods and on the basis of targeted resources — all formalized in appropriate public documents (Bennett and Krebs, 1991; Bobbio, 2000). Economic regulation based on cooperation between local actors is not per se anything new. Where economic development has been successful (industrial districts, strong regions and cities, successful cases of regeneration), the actors have — explicitly or implicitly — recognized the existence of shared values and common interests, and regulation has taken place through forms of governance rather than government. From the organizational point of view, the network of organizations (instead of the single organization) has become the characteristic instrument of structured collective action, both in defining objectives and in implementing them. This means of regulation of the local economy often gives rise to the formation of policy communities. An effective regional industrial policy, for example, can be formulated and implemented by a network of actors that includes sections of regional government and of other local authorities, associations representing special interests, research institutes and individual enterprises (Maraffi, 1997).